Signalling Costs Net Present Value (NPV) / MBA Resources

Introduction to Net Present Value (NPV) - What is Net Present Value (NPV) ? How it impacts financial decisions regarding project management?

NPV solution for Signalling Costs case study

At Oak Spring University, we provide corporate level professional Net Present Value (NPV) case study solution. Signalling Costs case study is a Harvard Business School (HBR) case study written by Adam Brandenburger. The Signalling Costs (referred as “Aspartame Nutrasweet's” from here on) case study provides evaluation & decision scenario in field of Strategy & Execution. It also touches upon business topics such as - Value proposition, Competitive strategy, Intellectual property, Marketing, Pricing.

The net present value (NPV) of an investment proposal is the present value of the proposal’s net cash flows less the proposal’s initial cash outflow. If a project’s NPV is greater than or equal to zero, the project should be accepted.

NPV = Present Value of Future Cash Flows LESS Project’s Initial Investment

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Case Description of Signalling Costs Case Study

NutraSweet's worldwide patent-protected monopoly on aspartame, the low-calorie high-intensity sweetener, ended with the 1987 entry of the Holland Sweetener Co. (HSC) into the European market. Following the arrival of a challenger, NutraSweet acted to reduce sharply the price at which it offered aspartame to its European customers. NutraSweet's pricing move raised the question: were its actions in Europe a credible signal of how it would respond to entry in the U.S. market (where its patent was due to expire in late 1992)? This case explores some aspects of the game between a challenger (such as HSC) that is looking to enter a market and an established player in the market (such as NutraSweet) that may engage in signalling behavior.

Case Authors : Adam Brandenburger

Topic : Strategy & Execution

Related Areas : Competitive strategy, Intellectual property, Marketing, Pricing

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Calculating Net Present Value (NPV) at 6% for Signalling Costs Case Study

Years	Cash Flow	Net Cash Flow	Cumulative     Cash Flow	Discount Rate @ 6 %	Discounted Cash Flows
Year 0	(10016441)	-10016441	-	-
Year 1	3461929	-6554512	3461929	0.9434	3265971
Year 2	3972088	-2582424	7434017	0.89	3535144
Year 3	3956609	1374185	11390626	0.8396	3322045
Year 4	3234854	4609039	14625480	0.7921	2562307
TOTAL			14625480		12685468

The Net Present Value at 6% discount rate is 2669027

In isolation the NPV number doesn't mean much but put in right context then it is one of the best method to evaluate project returns. In this article we will cover -

Different methods of capital budgeting

What is NPV & Formula of NPV,
How it is calculated,
How to use NPV number for project evaluation, and
Scenario Planning given risks and management priorities.

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Capital Budgeting Approaches

Methods of Capital Budgeting

There are four types of capital budgeting techniques that are widely used in the corporate world –

1. Net Present Value
2. Payback Period
3. Internal Rate of Return
4. Profitability Index

Apart from the Payback period method which is an additive method, rest of the methods are based on Discounted Cash Flow technique. Even though cash flow can be calculated based on the nature of the project, for the simplicity of the article we are assuming that all the expected cash flows are realized at the end of the year.

Discounted Cash Flow approaches provide a more objective basis for evaluating and selecting investment projects. They take into consideration both –

1. Magnitude of both incoming and outgoing cash flows – Projects can be capital intensive, time intensive, or both. Aspartame Nutrasweet's shareholders have preference for diversified projects investment rather than prospective high income from a single capital intensive project.
2. Timing of the expected cash flows – stockholders of Aspartame Nutrasweet's have higher preference for cash returns over 4-5 years rather than 10-15 years given the nature of the volatility in the industry.

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Formula and Steps to Calculate Net Present Value (NPV) of Signalling Costs

NPV = Net Cash In Flowt1 / (1+r)t1 + Net Cash In Flowt2 / (1+r)t2 + … Net Cash In Flowtn / (1+r)tn
Less Net Cash Out Flowt0 / (1+r)t0

Where t = time period, in this case year 1, year 2 and so on.
r = discount rate or return that could be earned using other safe proposition such as fixed deposit or treasury bond rate. Net Cash In Flow – What the firm will get each year.
Net Cash Out Flow – What the firm needs to invest initially in the project.

Step 1 – Understand the nature of the project and calculate cash flow for each year.
Step 2 – Discount those cash flow based on the discount rate.
Step 3 – Add all the discounted cash flow.
Step 4 – Selection of the project

Why Strategy & Execution Managers need to know Financial Tools such as Net Present Value (NPV)?

In our daily workplace we often come across people and colleagues who are just focused on their core competency and targets they have to deliver. For example marketing managers at Aspartame Nutrasweet's often design programs whose objective is to drive brand awareness and customer reach. But how that 30 point increase in brand awareness or 10 point increase in customer touch points will result into shareholders’ value is not specified.

To overcome such scenarios managers at Aspartame Nutrasweet's needs to not only know the financial aspect of project management but also needs to have tools to integrate them into part of the project development and monitoring plan.

Calculating Net Present Value (NPV) at 15%

After working through various assumptions we reached a conclusion that risk is far higher than 6%. In a reasonably stable industry with weak competition - 15% discount rate can be a good benchmark.

Years	Cash Flow	Net Cash Flow	Cumulative     Cash Flow	Discount Rate @ 15 %	Discounted Cash Flows
Year 0	(10016441)	-10016441	-	-
Year 1	3461929	-6554512	3461929	0.8696	3010373
Year 2	3972088	-2582424	7434017	0.7561	3003469
Year 3	3956609	1374185	11390626	0.6575	2601535
Year 4	3234854	4609039	14625480	0.5718	1849538
TOTAL					10464915

The Net NPV after 4 years is 448474

(10464915 - 10016441 )

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Calculating Net Present Value (NPV) at 20%

If the risk component is high in the industry then we should go for a higher hurdle rate / discount rate of 20%.

Years	Cash Flow	Net Cash Flow	Cumulative     Cash Flow	Discount Rate @ 20 %	Discounted Cash Flows
Year 0	(10016441)	-10016441	-	-
Year 1	3461929	-6554512	3461929	0.8333	2884941
Year 2	3972088	-2582424	7434017	0.6944	2758394
Year 3	3956609	1374185	11390626	0.5787	2289704
Year 4	3234854	4609039	14625480	0.4823	1560018
TOTAL					9493058

The Net NPV after 4 years is -523383

At 20% discount rate the NPV is negative (9493058 - 10016441 ) so ideally we can't select the project if macro and micro factors don't allow financial managers of Aspartame Nutrasweet's to discount cash flow at lower discount rates such as 15%.

Acceptance Criteria of a Project based on NPV

Simplest Approach – If the investment project of Aspartame Nutrasweet's has a NPV value higher than Zero then finance managers at Aspartame Nutrasweet's can ACCEPT the project, otherwise they can reject the project. This means that project will deliver higher returns over the period of time than any alternate investment strategy.

In theory if the required rate of return or discount rate is chosen correctly by finance managers at Aspartame Nutrasweet's, then the stock price of the Aspartame Nutrasweet's should change by same amount of the NPV. In real world we know that share price also reflects various other factors that can be related to both macro and micro environment.

In the same vein – accepting the project with zero NPV should result in stagnant share price. Finance managers use discount rates as a measure of risk components in the project execution process.

Sensitivity Analysis

Project selection is often a far more complex decision than just choosing it based on the NPV number. Finance managers at Aspartame Nutrasweet's should conduct a sensitivity analysis to better understand not only the inherent risk of the projects but also how those risks can be either factored in or mitigated during the project execution. Sensitivity analysis helps in –

Understanding of risks involved in the project.

What will be a multi year spillover effect of various taxation regulations.

What are the key aspects of the projects that need to be monitored, refined, and retuned for continuous delivery of projected cash flows.

What are the uncertainties surrounding the project Initial Cash Outlay (ICO’s). ICO’s often have several different components such as land, machinery, building, and other equipment.

What can impact the cash flow of the project.

Some of the assumptions while using the Discounted Cash Flow Methods –

Projects are assumed to be Mutually Exclusive – This is seldom the came in modern day giant organizations where projects are often inter-related and rejecting a project solely based on NPV can result in sunk cost from a related project.

Independent projects have independent cash flows – As explained in the marketing project – though the project may look independent but in reality it is not as the brand awareness project can be closely associated with the spending on sales promotions and product specific advertising.

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Negotiation Strategy of Signalling Costs

References & Further Readings

Adam Brandenburger (2018), "Signalling Costs Harvard Business Review Case Study. Published by HBR Publications.